British Monarchy and its influence upon governmental institutions
By the end of the tenth century the English monarchy
had the most sophisticated coinage system in western Europe. The system allowed
kings to exploit the wealth of a much enlarged kingdom and to raise the very
large sums of money which they had to use as bribes to limit the effect of the
Vikings' invasions at the end of the tenth century.
For five centuries in England, until 1280, silver
pennies were the only royal coins in circulation. Gradually a range of
denominations began to emerge, and by the mid fourteenth century a regular
coinage of gold was introduced. The gold sovereign came into existence in 1489
under King Henry VII. Throughout this period, counterfeiting coinage was
regarded as a grave crime against the state amounting to high treason and was
punishable by death under an English statute of 1350. The crime was considered
to be an interference with the administration of government and the
representation of the monarch. Until the nineteenth century the Royal Mint was based
at the Tower of London, and for centuries was therefore under the direct
control of the monarch.
The English monarchy was the first monarchy in the
British Isles to introduce a coinage for practical and propaganda purposes.
Only one early Welsh king, Hywel Dda, minted a coin, though it may not have
been produced in Wales itself. The first Scottish king to issue a coinage was
David I (d. 1153). Until the reign of Alexander III (1249-1286) Scottish
coinage was only issued sparingly. During the reign of Alexander III coins
began to be minted in much larger quantities, a result of increasing trade with
Europe and the importation of foreign silver.
After the death of Alexander III in 1289, Scotland
fell into a long period of internal strife and war with England. A nominal
coinage was issued under John Balliol c.1296 and then in reign of Robert the
Bruce (1306-1329), but the first substantial issue of coinage did not come
until the reign of David II (1329-1371). The accession by James VI to the
English throne in 1603 saw the fixing of value of the Scottish coinage to a
ratio of 1 / 12 with English coinage. After the Act of Union in 1707 unique
Scottish coinage came to an end. The last Scottish minted coins were the
sterling issues based on the English denominations that were issued until 1709
with the "E" mintmark for Edinburgh. Some British coinages have
featured Scottish devices, the Royal Arms of Scotland or the thistle emblem
during the 20th century, but these are a part of the coinage of the United
Kingdom, not unique to Scotland.
In the United Kingdom a streamlining of coinage
production took place in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Until the
Restoration of Charles II, coins were struck by hand. In 1816, there was a
major change in the British coinage, powered by the Industrial Revolution. The
Royal Mint moved from The Tower of London to new premises on nearby Tower Hill,
and acquired powerful new steam powered coining presses. Further changes took
place in the 1960s, when the Mint moved to modern premises at Llantrisant, near
Cardiff.
After over a thousand years and many changes in
production techniques, the monarch continues to be depicted on the obverse of
modern UK coinage. Certain traditions are observed in this representation. From
the time of Charles II onwards a tradition developed of successive monarchs
being represented on the coinage facing in the opposite direction to their
immediate predecessor. There was an exception to this in the brief reign of
Edward VIII, who liked portraits of himself facing to the left, even though he
should have faced to the right according to tradition. The designs for proposed
coins in the Mint collection show Edward VIII facing to the left. The tradition
has been restored since the reign of George VI.
During The Queen's reign there have been four
representations of Her Majesty on circulating coinage. The original coin
portrait of Her Majesty was by Mary Gillick and was adopted at the beginning of
the reign in 1952. The following effigy was by Arnold Machin OBE, RA, approved
by the Queen in 1964. That portrait, which features the same tiara as the
latest effigy, was used on all the decimal coins from 1968. The next effigy was
by Raphael Maklouf FRSA and was adopted in 1985. The latest portrait was
introduced in 1998 and is the work of Ian Rank-Broadley FRBS, FSNAD. In keeping
with tradition, the new portrait continues to show the Queen in profile facing
to the right. Her Majesty is wearing the tiara which she was given as a wedding
present by her grandmother Queen Mary.
Images of the monarch on bank notes are a much more
recent invention. Although bank notes began to be issued from the late
seventeenth century, they did not come to predominate over coins until the
nineteenth century. Only since 1960 has the British Sovereign been featured on
English bank notes, giving The Queen a unique distinction above her
predecessors.
STAMPS
There is a close relationship between the British
Monarchy and the postal system of the United Kingdom. Present-day postal
services have their origins in royal methods of sending documents in previous
centuries. Nowadays, the image of The Queen on postage stamps preserves the
connection with the Monarchy.
For centuries letters on affairs of State to and from
the Sovereign's Court, and despatches in time of war, were carried by
Messengers of the Court and couriers employed for particular occasions. Henry
VIII's Master of the Posts set up post-stages along the major roads of the kingdom
where Royal Couriers, riding post-haste, could change horses. In Elizabeth I's
day, those carrying the royal mail were to 'blow their horn as oft as they met
company, or four times every mile'. Letters of particular urgency - for
example, reprieves for condemned prisoners - bore inscriptions such as 'Haste,
haste - post haste - haste for life for life hast' and the sign of the gallows.
During the reign of James I (1603-25) all four posts of the kingdom still
centred on the Court: The Courte to Barwicke (the post to Scotland); The Courte
to Beaumoris (to Ireland); The Courte to Dover (to Europe) and The Courte to
Plymouth (the Royal Dockyard).
Charles I opened his posts to public use, as a
means of raising money. Although public use of the royal posts increased, the
running of the mail continued to centre round the post requirements of the
Sovereign's Court. Until the 1780's the Mails did not leave London until the
Court letters had been received at the General Post Office, and as late as 1807
Court letters coming into London were, unlike ordinary letters, delivered the
moment the mail arrived. The postal system rapidly spread during Victoria's
reign with the introduction of the Uniform Penny Postage in 1840, and the
Queen's letters bore postage stamps like everyone else's. Royal Messengers
continued to carry certain letters by hand. The increase in the Court's mail
led to special postal facilities being provided in 1897 in the form of a Court
Post Office - an arrangement which still exists today under the management of
the Court Postmaster.
Symbols of the royal origins of the UK's postal system
remain: a miniature silhouette of the Monarch's head is depicted on all stamps;
the personal cyphers of The Queen and her predecessors (going back to Victoria)
appear on many letterboxes dating from their respective reigns throughout the
country; and the postal delivery service is known as the Royal Mail.
COATS OF ARMS
The function of the Royal Coat of Arms is to
identify the person who is Head of State. In respect of the United Kingdom, the
royal arms are borne only by the Sovereign. They are used in many ways in
connection with the administration and government of the country, for instance
on coins, in churches and on public buildings. They are familiar to most people
as they appear on the products and goods of Royal Warrant holders.
The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom have
evolved over many years and reflect the history of the Monarchy and of the
country. In the design the shield shows the various royal emblems of different
parts of the United Kingdom: the three lions of England in the first and fourth
quarters, the lion of Scotland in the second and the harp of Ireland in the
third. It is surrounded by a garter bearing the motto Honi soit qui mal y
pense ('Evil to him who evil thinks'), which symbolises the Order of the
Garter, an ancient order of knighthood of which the Queen is Sovereign. The
shield is supported by the English lion and Scottish unicorn and is surmounted
by the Royal crown. Below it appears the motto of the Sovereign, Dieu et
mon droit ('God and my right'). The plant badges of the United Kingdom -
rose, thistle and shamrock - are often displayed beneath the shield.
Separate Scottish and English quarterings of the Royal
Arms originate from the Union of the Crown in 1603. The Scottish version of the
Royal Coat of Arms shows the lion of Scotland in the first and fourth quarters,
with that of England being in the second. The harp of Ireland is in the third
quarter. The mottoes read In defence and No one will attack me with impunity.
From the times of the Stuart kings, the Scottish quarterings have been used for
official purposes in Scotland (for example, on official buildings and official
publications).
The special position of Wales as a Principality was
recognised by the creation of the Prince of Wales long before the incorporation
of the quarterings for Scotland and Ireland in the Royal Arms. The arms of the
Prince of Wales show the arms of the ancient Principality in the centre as well
as these quarterings.
Coats of Arms of members of the Royal Family are
broadly similar to The Queen's with small differences to identify them.
GREAT SEAL
The Great Seal of the Realm is the chief seal of the
Crown, used to show the monarch's approval of important state documents. In
today's constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the
Government of the day, but the seal remains an important symbol of the
Sovereign's role as Head of State.
The practice of using this seal began in the reign of
Edward the Confessor in the 11th century, when a double-sided metal matrix with
an image of the Sovereign was used to make an impression in wax for attachment
by ribbon or cord to royal documents. The seal meant that the monarch did not
need to sign every official document in person; authorisation could be carried
out instead by an appointed officer. In centuries when few people could read or
write, the seal provided a pictorial expression of royal approval which all
could understand. The uniqueness of the official seal - only one matrix was in
existence at any one time - also meant it was difficult to forge or tamper with
official documents.
The Great Seal matrix has changed many times throughout
the centuries. A new matrix is engraved at the beginning of each reign on the
order of the Sovereign; it is traditional that on the death of the Sovereign
the old seal is used until the new Sovereign orders otherwise. For many
monarchs, a single seal has sufficed. In the case of some long-reigning
monarchs, such as Queen Victoria, the original seal simply wore out and a
series of replacements was required.
The Queen has had two Great Seals during her reign.
The first was designed by Gilbert Ledward and came into service in 1953.
Through long usage and the heat involved in the sealing process, the matrix
lost definition. From summer 2001 a new Great Seal, designed by sculptor James
Butler and produced by the Royal Mint, has been in use. At a meeting of the
Privy Council on 18 July 2001 The Queen handed the new seal matrix over to the
Lord High Chancellor, currently Lord Irvine of Lairg, who is the traditional
keeper of the Great Seal.
The Great Seal matrix will be used to create seals for
a range of documents requiring royal approval, including letters patent, royal
proclamations, commissions, some writs (such as writs for the election of
Members of Parliament), and the documents which give power to sign and ratify
treaties. During the year 2000-01, more than 100 documents passed under the
Great Seal. Separate seals exist for Scotland - the Great Seal of Scotland -
and for Northern Ireland.
The process of sealing takes place nowadays at the
House of Lords in the office of the Clerk of the Crown in Chancery. A system of
'colour coding' is used for the seal impression, depending on the type of
document to which it is being affixed. Dark green seals are affixed to letters
patent which elevate individuals to the peerage; blue seals are used for
documents relating to the close members of the Royal Family; and scarlet red is
used for documents appointing a bishop and for most other patents.
FLAGS
A number of different types of flag are associated
with The Queen and the Royal Family. The Union Flag (or Union Jack) originated
as a Royal flag, although it is now also flown by many people and organisations
elsewhere in the United Kingdom by long established custom. The Royal Standard
is the flag flown when The Queen is in residence in one of the Royal Palaces,
on The Queen's car on official journeys and on aircraft (when on the ground),
and represents the Sovereign and the United Kingdom. The Queen's personal flag,
adopted in 1960, is personal to her alone and can be flown by no one other than
The Queen. Members of the Royal Family have their own personal variants on the
Royal Standard. The Prince of Wales has additional Standards which he uses in
Wales and Scotland.
CROWNS AND JEWELS
The crowns and treasures associated with the
British Monarchy are powerful symbols of monarchy for the British people and,
as such, their value represents more than gold and precious stones. Today the
crowns and treasures associated with English kings and queens since 1660 and earlier
are used for the Coronation of Monarchs of the United Kingdom. The crowns and
regalia used by Scottish monarchs (the Honours of Scotland) and Princes of
Wales (the Honours of the Principality of Wales) continue to have symbolic
meaning in Scotland and Wales. All three collections of treasures can be viewed
today in their different locations - the Tower of London, Edinburgh Castle and
the National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.
TRANSPORT
The Queen's State and private motor cars are housed
in the Royal Mews. For official duties - providing transport for State and
other visitors as well as The Queen herself - there are nine State limousines,
consisting of one Bentley, five Rolls-Royces and three Daimlers. They are
painted in Royal maroon livery and the Bentley and Rolls-Royces uniquely do not
have registration number plates. Other vehicles include a number of Vauxhall
Sintra 'people carriers'.
The most recent State car, which is used for most of
The Queen's engagements, is a State Bentley presented to The Queen to mark her
Golden Jubilee in 2002. The one-off model, conceived by a Bentley-led
consortium of British motor industry manufacturers and suppliers, is the first
Bentley to be used for State occasions. It was designed with input from The
Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh and Her Majesty's Head Chauffeur.
In technical terms, the car has a monocoque
construction, enabling greater use to be made of the vehicle's interior
space. This means the transmission tunnel now runs underneath the floor,
without encroaching on the cabin and has enabled the stylists to work with a
lowered roofline whilst preserving the required interior height. The rear
doors have been redesigned enabling The Queen to stand up straight before
stepping down to the ground. The rear seats are upholstered in Hield Lambswool
Sateen cloth whilst all remaining upholstery is in light grey Connolly
hide. Carpets are pale blue in the rear and dark blue in the front.
A Rolls-Royce Phantom VI was presented to The
Queen in 1978 for her Silver Jubilee by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and
Traders. The oldest car in the fleet is the Phantom IV, built in 1950, 5.76
litre with a straight eight engine and a Mulliner body. There is also a 1987
Phantom VI and two identical Phantom V models built in the early 1960s. The
1978 Phantom VI and the two Phantom V models have a removable exterior roof
covering, which exposes an inner lining of perspex, giving a clear view of
passengers.
All the cars have fittings for the shield bearing the
Royal Coat of Arms and the Royal Standard. The Queen has her own mascot for use
on official cars. Designed for her by the artist Edward Seago in the form of St
George on a horse poised victorious over a slain dragon, it is made of silver
and can be transferred from car to car as necessary. The Duke of Edinburgh's
mascot, a heraldic lion wearing a crown, is adapted from his arms.
For her private use The Queen drives a Daimler Jaguar
saloon or a Vauxhall estate (like every other qualified driver, The Queen holds
a driving licence). The Duke of Edinburgh has a Range Rover and, for short
journeys round London, uses a Metrocab. The private cars are painted Edinburgh
green.
A number of Royal Mews vehicles have now been
converted to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - a more environmentally
friendly fuel than petrol or diesel. Converted vehicles include one of the
Rolls-Royce Phantom IVs, a Daimler and The Duke of Edinburgh's Metrocab.
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