Oxford's teachhing methods of english language
p>Description of the group. I gave teachers a questionnaire to determine
their view of using games for vocabulary teaching. In response to the
questionnaire, many teachers said they often used games for vocabulary
revision. Some claimed they were successful and usually more effective than
other methods. To see if this is really true, I decided to use a crossword
puzzle with a group of first year students.The crossword puzzle. After completing a unit about Van Gogh, students
wanted to expand their vocabulary with words connected with art. The
students compiled lists of words, which they had learnt. In order to revise
the vocabulary, one of the groups had to work out the crossword puzzle.
Students worked in pairs. One person in each pair was provided with part A
of the crossword puzzle and the other with part B. The students' task was
to fill in their part of the puzzle with the missing words known to their
partner. To complete the activity, learners had to ask each other for the
explanations, definitions, or examples to arrive at the appropriate
answers. Only after getting the answer right could they put it down in the
suitable place of their part of the crossword. Having completed the puzzle,
students were supposed to find out what word was formed from the letters
found in the shaded squares. Students enjoyed the activity very much and did not resort to
translation at any point. They used various strategies to successfully
convey the meanings of the words in question-e.g., definitions, association
techniques, and examples. When everyone was ready, the answers were checked
and students were asked to give examples of definitions, explanations,
etc., they had used to get the missing words. The other group performed a similar task. Students were to define as
follows:
I. Define the following words: shade, icon, marker, fresco, perspective,
hue, daub, sculptor, still life, watercolor, palette, background.
II. Find the words these definitions describe: 1. a public show of objects 2. a variety of a colour 3. a wooden frame to hold a picture while it is being painted 4. a pale or a delicate shade of a colour 5. a picture of a wide view of country scenery 6. an instrument for painting made of sticks, stiff hair, nylon 7. a painting, drawing, or a photograph of a real person 8. a piece of work, especially art which is the best of its type or the best a person has made 9. painting, music, sculpture, and others chiefly concerned with producing beautiful rather than useful things 10. a line showing the shape (of something) 11. a person who is painted, drawn, photographed by an artist 12. a picture made with a pen, pencil, etc.
Analysis of results. The results show that the crossword puzzle, though
seemingly more difficult since it required the knowledge of words and their
definitions and not mere recognition and matching, was easier for 27.4% of
the learners and granted them more points for this part of the test. For
the majority of the students (nearly 60%) both activities proved equally
easy and out of the group of thirteen, eleven students had the highest
possible score.
Summing up These numbers suggest that games are effective activities as a technique
for vocabulary revision. Students also prefer games and puzzles to other
activities. Games motivate and entertain students but also help them learn
in a way which aids the retention and retrieval of the material (This is
what the learners stated themselves). However, the numbers also show that not everyone feels comfortable with
games and puzzles and not everyone obtains better results.
Although one cannot overgeneralise from one game, student feedback
indicates that many students may benefit from games in revision of
vocabulary.
Conclusions
Recently, using games has become a popular technique exercised by many
educators in the classrooms and recommended by methodologists. Many
sources, including the ones quoted in this work, list the advantages of the
use of games in foreign language classrooms. Yet, nowhere have I found any
empirical evidence for their usefulness in vocabulary presentation and
consolidation.
Though the main objectives of the games were to acquaint students with new
words or phrases and help them consolidate lexical items, they also helped
develop the students' communicative competence.
From the observations, I noticed that those groups of students who
practised vocabulary activity with games felt more motivated and interested
in what they were doing. However, the time they spent working on the words
was usually slightly longer than when other techniques were used with
different groups. This may suggest that more time devoted to activities
leads to better results. The marks students received suggested that the fun
and relaxed atmosphere accompanying the activities facilitated students'
learning. But this is not the only possible explanation of such an outcome.
The use of games during the lessons might have motivated students to work
more on the vocabulary items on their own, so the game might have only been
a good stimulus for extra work.
Although, it cannot be said that games are always better and easier to cope
with for everyone, an overwhelming majority of pupils find games relaxing
and motivating. Games should be an integral part of a lesson, providing the
possibility of intensive practise while at the same time immensely
enjoyable for both students and teachers. My research has produced some
evidence which shows that games are useful and more successful than other
methods of vocabulary presentation and revision. Having such evidence at
hand, I wish to recommend the wide use of games with vocabulary work as a
successful way of acquiring language competence. Note-taking
A Useful Device
by Clara Perez Fajardo Has it ever happened that you read or listen to something, and shortly afterwards when you want to recall it, you can only remember a small part? Have you ever thought of how many interesting ideas you have missed, just because you have not taken a few seconds to note them down as they occurred to you? Everyday happenings pass through time and can never be recalled again if they are not recorded either on a tape or with a video camera. But, not many of us have these devices always handy. What we do have available is a simple sheet of paper, a pencil, and our five senses. Taking notes on what takes place not only permits us to remember but also facilitates our oral and written communication. Regardless of their age or level, students tend to rely too much on their memory, instead of taking notes. For this reason, I began devising different tasks which demand the recall of facts that the students would have only if they had taken notes. The results have motivated me to do further research on the topic through interviews, reading, and analysis-all the time noting down the information I was obtaining.
The note-taking process
In order to reconstruct a complete account of what one perceives through
listening, reading, observing, discussing, or thinking, it is necessary to
take notes either simultaneously with the act of perception or after an
interval of just a few seconds. We cannot expect to remember everything we
perceive, and despite the advantages of training our memory, it is better
to have notes taken at the moment things happen.
Language educators have approached note-taking from different perspectives.
McKeating (1981) sees note-taking as a complex activity which combines
reading and listening with selecting, summarizing, and writing. Grellet (1986) advises helping students to establish the structure of a
text so they can pull out the key ideas and leave out nonessential
information. Nwokoreze (1990) believes that "it is during the note-taking
stage that students reach the highest level of comprehension." Two main aspects concerning note-taking: It involves the combination of different skills, i.e.; listening or
reading, selecting, summarizing, and writing.
It requires the selection of relevant information from the nonessential. Moreover, most authors see note-taking as a complex activity which must be
approached gradually. When teaching the skill, Raimes suggests that
elementary-level students can be given a skeleton outline to work with when
they take notes, so that their listening is more directed. Advanced
students can listen to longer passages and make notes as they listen. Murray refers to a "rehearsal for writing," which begins as an unwritten
dialogue within the writer's mind: what the writer hears in his/her head
evolves into notes. This may be simple brainstorming-the jotting down of
random bits of information which may connect themselves into a pattern
later on.
Note-taking involves putting onto paper the data received through any of
our senses. These data could range from simple figures, letters, symbols,
isolated words, or brief phrases to complete sentences and whole ideas. Most teachers instruct students to take notes while perceiving . However,
Nwokoreze insists on the need for first listening long enough to make sure
the essence of the information is perceived before taking notes. The
decision on whether the notes are to be taken at the moment of perception
or shortly afterwards depends on the complexity of the task and the ability
of the note-taker. Consequently, if we are to take notes with figures,
letters, or single words to fill in a pre-designed skeleton, we can do it
at the same time we receive the information; whereas notes which require
selection, summarizing, and organization ought to be taken later.
Guided note-taking
As teachers, we must decide what sort of help our students need for every
task we assign. The guidance we give for taking notes will depend on
various aspects. One of them is language level. Raimes suggests providing
beginners with a skeleton outline to fill in or expand to make their
listening more directed. She also proposes letting the advanced students
listen to longer passages and make notes as they listen.
Guidance provided will depend on the degree of difficulty of the task
involved. The reasons for taking notes and the follow-up activities are
also important. If the students only take notes of simple figures, letters,
or single words as the basis for a discussion to take place immediately,
they will not need much guidance. But if they are supposed to take notes of
a higher complexity to use in writing a report for homework, they will need
more preparation.
Using note-taking in our classes
Assuming an extreme position when defining the concept of note-taking, we
can say that even checking or ticking items on a list is a form of note-
taking, as long as what students have to "tick" represents the content of
the reading or listening passage. If we give students a multiple-choice
exercise, a list, or Yes/No questions, and ask them only to tick the
correct answer, they will be taking notes. This could be considered the
most basic form of note-taking. Nevertheless, if we analyze the task in
detail, we find it is not as simple as it seems. To answer accurately, the
students will first have to understand the statements and determine whether
their choices are correct or not. Furthermore, they have to predict and
speculate about what they are going to perceive.
When revising any topic we may practice it and use this technique giving
students a skeleton to fill in while listening. Example: |Hypertension |
|Instructions: |
|Listen to the interview with the patient and tick (v) the correct |
|answer: |
|Patient's |Mrs. Kelly. | |
|name: | | |
|Main |high blood pressure headache | |
|Symptoms: | | |
| |dizziness | | |
|Other |obesity |blurred vision | |
|Symptoms: | | | |
| |trouble breathing |swollen ankles | |
| |urinary problems |pain in the back | |
| |chills and fever | | |
|Past |heart disease |chest pain | |
|History: | | | |
| |kidney infection | | |
|Family |hypertension |diabetes | |
|History | | | |
| |kidney disease |stroke | |
| |heart attack | | |
|Any other information? | With this last question, we are prompting the students to note down
other information, not limiting them only to what the chart asks for. Not
all the students will be able to take further notes, but the most skilled
will not get bored while their classmates are engaged at a more elementary
level. Another instance that calls for note-taking is reporting on medical cases.
To do this, the class may be divided into teams of three or four students.
Each team prepares a case for the others to analyze. One variant would be
having each team first brainstorm, then prepare a skeleton outline with the
sort of information they need the other team to provide in order to write a
full case report. Once ready, they exchange skeletons, brainstorm again,
and note down the information the skeleton forms ask for. The teams should
give neither the diagnosis nor the treatment. As soon as they finish, they
swap these "problem-cases," analyze them, and confer on the diagnosis,
treatment, and prognosis of the patient. Next, they write a full case
report that everyone reads and discusses. The class then moves around,
reads, and comments on them. Finally, they decide which of the skeleton
forms are better and which reports are the most coherent and faithful to
the information provided.
A simpler variant would be having each team ask for the information orally
from one another, take notes on it and then report on the case orally or in
writing.
In teaching Medically Speaking , I suggest taking notes while listening to
the dialogues or reading the case studies given in the text. Instead of
having the students take down all the information, teams are formed to take
notes on specific parts. Appendix |Instructions for preparing and presenting a case report |
|First think of an interesting case you would like to report on |
|and discuss with your classmates. Consult your professors, look|
|for information about your case and associated diseases or |
|cases in magazines, books, journals, etc. Note down this |
|information. Then make an outline of the elements you need in |
|order to report on a case |
|1. Patient's |Age: |Sex: Race: |
|characteristics: | | |
| |Weight: |Height: |
|2. Main symptom: |8. Physical findings |
|3. Other symptoms: |9. Diagnostic procedure: |
|4. Past history: |10. Differential and definitive|
| |diagnosis: |
|5. Family history: |11. Therapeutic procedures: |
|6. (Toxic) habits: |12. Possible complications |
|7. Medications: |13. Prognosis | Before presenting your case orally, copy the outline on the board, ask your
classmates to also copy it in their notebooks. You will all follow this
order for the presentation and discussion of your case. Your classmates
will ask you for the data they need to complete their outlines and discuss
the case. Once the discussion is over, they will use their notes to write a
report on the case you presented.
|Patient's characteristics: Age: 22 |Race: white Sex: M |
|Weight: 70 kg. | |Height: 1.70m. |
|Main symptom: |pain in the right lower quadrant (sporadic and|
| |colicky in nature) |
| |*began in epigastrium two days ago |
| |*moved to periumbilical region and right lower|
| |quadrant |
|Other symptoms:|fever, vomits (3), anorexia, constipation for |
| |two days (no bowel movement). No diarrhea |
|Past history: |-none |
|Family history:|-none |
|Toxic habits: |-none |
|Medications: |-none |
|Physical |-patient well oriented as to time, place and |
|findings: |person |
| |-well nourished |
| |-extreme tenderness to palpation mainly |
| |over McBurney's point |
| |-guarding, muscle rigidity, rebound |
| |tenderness |
| |-difference: axillary & rectal temperature |
| |-bowel sounds: absent |
|Definitive diagnosis: acute appendicitis |
|Therapeutic procedures: appendectomy |
|Possible complications: perforation, necrosis, peritonitis |
|Prognosis: Anceps |
Report
Today we discussed the case of a 22-year-old white man who was in good
health prior to two days ago, when he began to have an abdominal pain. This
pain was sporadic and colicky in nature. It began in the epigastrium and
has since migrated to the right lower quadrant. The patient has had three
episodes of vomiting associated with the pain. He has been anorectic and
feverish. He has had no bowel movements for two days. He reported no
diarrhea, coughing with expectoration or shortness of breath. He has no
past history or family history of abdominal pain or any other disease. The
pertinent physical findings are related to the abdomen. There is extreme
tenderness to palpation, especially over McBurney's point. Guarding, muscle
rigidity and rebound tenderness are all present. Bowel sounds are absent.
There is a difference between the axillary and the rectal temperature. His
urinalysis, hemoglobin and hematocrit are within normal limits.
Nevertheless, both white blood count and red rate are elevated. His chest
film is clear, but in the abdominal film we observed the psoas line is
absent. Finally, we decided the definitive diagnosis is acute appendicitis. Among
the possible complications to consider are perforation, necrosis and
peritonitis. Therefore, the prognosis is anceps. The only possible
treatment is surgical: appendectomy.
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